Flocks by Night : ’ A Paradigm of English Village Carolling for Three Centuries

Why has one carol above all others become the most widely sung lyric in English vernacular carolling traditions during the last three centuries? What is it about the simple balladic structure that has endeared this narrative of the birth of Jesus Christ to generations of carollers? By what means did these words become so widely circulated and how has their popularity been sustained? Why have the singers/musicians been inspired to create and recreate so many musical settings to this text to celebrate each Christmas anew?
In this article the history and development of the carol is summarised, and key examples of the tunes adopted in its musical pathway in tradition are provided. The significance of the text is examined, alongside the sacred and secular nature of its performance in the carolling communities of the Pennine hills of south Yorkshire and north Derbyshire. The aim of the article is to provide insights into the carol’s longevity and its centrality to the many local traditions. Other aspects of vernacular Christmas carolling are touched on, including the construction of repertoire, the development of tradition, the process of annual renewal, and the experiential aspects of performance.
 

I have chosen the term 'paradigm' for very conscious reasons. Firstly because the chosen carol is a model of its genre, or a very clear and typical example of it (Oxford English Dictionary 1986), but also because at a deeper level this research embodies the importance of an approach that combines ethnographic fieldwork of the vernacular tradition of carol singing with grounded historical research based on documentary evidence. My aim is to demonstrate, as Lomax (1968, 298) has noted, how such a paradigm as a carol can characterise a culture in terms of its basic structural elements (text and tune), and its wider complexity, including its role in social interaction, its transmission through oral tradition and print, its resonances and purposes, and an understanding of the enactment milieux, including style and aesthetics (Stone 2008, 3-11).  'While Shepherds Watched' is a very effective piece of verse, remarkable in its simplicity and for its use of vernacular language, such that it has never been significantly rewritten or updated (Gant 2014, 109 and 112-13 The popularity of this carol text was not entirely due to its privileged status within the established church. The carol was also printed on many broadsides, such as the sheet from James Catnach of 7 Dials in London, which were widely distributed by chapmen and pedlars (see Fig. 7). The copy has been handcoloured so that the seller could charge a higher price -the saying was "penny plain, tuppence coloured." 7 This ensured that copies of the carol were readily available in the home and at the inn (the village pub), and not just within the confines of the church. 5 See Temperley (1979, 121 and 123, and 208); Routley (1958, 120-23). 6 A snapshot from 1823 lists 89 Christmas carols in circulation that date from the previous century. See Hone (1823, 97-99

Musical Developments
Although the recommended tune in the Supplement, 'St. James's' by Raphael Courteville, was never taken up by congregations, the verse structure of the carol rendered it suitable for use with innumerable settings/tunes over the next three centuries: this structure has 4.3.4.3 stresses, known in poetry as ballad metre (four lines of alternating iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter), and 8.6.8.6 syllables, known in hymnody as common metre/measure or CM.
In the early 1700s there was a shortage of music suitable for congregational singing in English parish churches. The available repertoire typically included plainchants or simple melodies which were "lined out" 8 by a precentor (the parish clerk or the priest), responded to by the congregation, and were performed slowly, in heterophony. 9 This dearth of music-making was transformed into an abundance by the mid-1700s as a result of the creativity of local village musicians, most of whom were skilled craftsmen from the artisan class, often lacking in formal musical training, who wrote for their local communities or church congregations. One such, John Hall of Sheffield Park, a blacksmith, who died in 1794, composed the tunes for several carols which were absorbed into the local tradition (see Fig. 8). Their compositions, for the singing of psalms, hymns, anthems, oratorios, as well as carols, were characterised by exuberant delivery, repetition of lines of text, instrumental virtuosity, and the use of melisma and fuguing passages, influenced by the music of the Baroque, notably Bach and Handel. A special place in the form of a raised gallery within the west end of parish churches was created for the singers and instrumentalists from which to perform (see Fig. 9). The heyday for this style of music in the Sheffield region was approximately 1760-1820.
8 "Lining out" or "precenting the line" was prescribed by the Westminster Assembly of Divines in 1644 to combat illiteracy and encourage singing in the reformed Protestant Church in England. The practice was also adopted in Scotland and in the USA among the Old Regular Baptists. See Temperley (1979, 82 and 87 and 89). 9 A contemporary example of heterophonic psalmody is practised in the Isle of Lewis in Scotland. See, for example, 'Stroudwater,' which the congregation sings in their native Gaelic language. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txIx9b07RhY (accessed 5 May 2018).  By the late 1820s, however, the 'quires,' who performed this type of music with great energy and flamboyance, attracted the disapproval of High Church reformers, namely the groups who are referred to as the Tractarians and the Oxford Movement. 10 They saw the music as undermining the authority of the church. Their reforms, which in the first half of the nineteenth century affected all aspects of church worship from the liturgy to church interior design, saw the performance of 'Georgian psalmody,' as it is sometimes labelled, outlawed and its performers exiled. By the time of the publication of Hymns Ancient and Modern in 1861 (Monk 1861), England's first mass-produced hymnbook, the reform was virtually complete with surpliced choirboys taking the place of the redundant 'quires,' and newly installed church organs replacing the sacked bands of instrumentalists (see Gammon 1981, 72-80;Temperley 1979, 151-63). 10 Watson (1997; see chapter 14, "The Oxford Movement, and the Revival of Ancient Hymnody") and Gammon (1981). churches, where it was initially welcomed (but not for long), or literally out on the streets where the music was reserved for use at Christmastide and absorbed into existing perambulatory house-visiting customs as locally distinct traditions. Here, the carols were outside church jurisdiction and thrived on it. By the end of the nineteenth century the local traditions had become further secularised by the introduction of carol singing into the pubs, especially in the South Pennines of Yorkshire and Derbyshire (Russell 2017, 68-82).

In the Oral Tradition
In virtually every community that nurtured a repertoire of 'local' carols at least one of them was, and in many cases still is, a setting of 'While Shepherds Watched.' For example, at Foolow in the Derbyshire Peak District and Ingbirchworth in South Yorkshire seven different settings have been recorded at each location (see Fig. 10). The table in the Appendix 2 lists the 31 tunes that I have recorded from oral tradition, their provenance, musical genre, and essential characteristics.
The oldest and smallest group of tunes are the chants used for the singing of metrical psalms.
There are just two in number and one of these, 'Winchester Old,' is the standard tune used in churches in the UK today. In fact, there is no evidence to suggest that the words and this tune were combined before 1861, when the editors of Hymns Ancient and Modern set 'While Shepherds Watched' to 'Winchester Old' (no. 62). 11 As part of the policy to displace the eighteenth-century melismatic tunes from the official record, the editors deliberately sought out sixteenth-century chants for their 'purity' and sublimity. In their original conception such chants were monodic, plain and unadorned. The example given here is 'Chant No. 1,' as sung in Ingbirchworth and the Penistone district; the writer of the tune is not known (see Fig. 11). Our next group chronologically comprises the fuguing and melismatic tunes, fourteen of them, representing the largest and most popular group. The dates of their composition vary by more than a century -one or two predate 1760, most of them are from the 1760-1830 period whereas there is one from as late as c. 1900 (Northrop), which has elements of fuguing. As part of their polyphonic nature, these tunes demonstrate fuguing in two, three or four parts expressed through imitative entries, which create textual overlaps. Unusually 'The Old Tune' recorded in Beeston, which dates from the mid- Our fourth and final group includes evangelical 'revivalist' tunes popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, especially among Salvationist congregations. 14 They are mostly very lively with simple memorable melodies, such as 'Sweet Chiming Bells,' and take the form of verse and chorus.
An American influence from Moody and Sankey is in evidence 15 and in some tunes there are dotted rhythms and syncopation (see Fig. 15). 16   It is interesting to note that almost a third of the tunes are in triple time/metre.

Concerning Repertoire and Repetition
At midday on the first Sunday after the 11 November (Armistice Day or Remembrance Sundaywhichever is the latest), the Christmas carol singing season starts in the Blue Ball Inn in Worrall, one of several singing pubs in communities to the north and north-west of Sheffield. People arrive in good time, some as much as an hour before the start and crowd into the singing room, a modest venue which at other times is reserved for the playing of pool (bar billiards). Drinks are ordered through a hatchway and the room is heavy with conversation between carollers, exchanging news and sharing stories. Male voices dominate the session by two to one such that, as the introduction to the first carol is completed by the organist, Julia Bishop, the unsuspecting newcomer is hit by a wall of sound (see Fig. 16a and 16b). There time.' The transcription in Russell (2011, 182-183), is based on the playing of John Dawson (1916Dawson ( -1999, a carol pianist at pubs in Worrall and Oughtibridge. are times during the two-hour session when the room seems to vibrate as if it is overwhelmed by the volume and cannot hold any more. An atmosphere of excitement is generated among the carollers such that a momentum is built by the sheer density of voices. The transformative nature of this exuberant singing creates what Edward Hall has described as "social synchrony," 17 which, in turn, leads to a state of 'flow' -a term used by Csikzsentmihalyi (1988). Undoubtedly to achieve 'flow' demands a high level of familiarity with the repertoire -no mean feat, as more than twenty different carols may be performed in a single session. Amongst these there will almost certainly be three or four settings of 'While Shepherds Watched.' In repeating the text for each of these, the performers receive a form of respite -without the need to recall several different texts they can feel confident in their memorisation of the words and focus on the enjoyment of the tune and its performance, reaching a climax in the final verse, "All glory be to God on High ... Begin and never cease." There are other texts that may also be repeated to a lesser extent -notably 'Hark, Hark! What News'which offers the same benefit. 18 In an atmosphere of bravado, impromptu carolling sessions have been known to feature nothing but settings of 'While Shepherds Watched,' an accolade being reserved for the singer who can keep coming up with different tunes for the text. Similarly I have conducted workshops at festivals devoted to 'While Shepherds Watched' with equal success. 19 The fact that the words are constantly being repeated to distinctive melodies, adds to, rather than detracts from, the buzz, providing ease of performance as well as transgressive humour and a sense of mischief-making. In such situations the significance of the words shifts from a semantic to a ritualistic or symbolic function. The inner meaning of the narrative is no longer what matters to the singers, rather the text provides the appropriate vehicle to enable performance of the many associated melodies and their fulfilment as distinct acts of carolling.

Conclusion
The phenomenon of the overwhelming popularity of the carol text 'While Shepherds Watched' over three centuries is not due to its intrinsic qualities as a work of poetical genius or spiritual merit. Rather it is the simplicity of language, the familiar balladic structure, and the unpretentious narrative, which stays true to Luke's Gospel, which has provided an enduring means to an end, that is to enable the enjoyment of singing carols as a vernacular expression of the seasonal celebration of Christmas by reiterating the symbolic narrative. This expression has not been prescribed or controlled by the arbiters of musical taste or doctrinal belief, through the influence of the church hierarchy or the mass media, but represents a dynamic grassroots movement in which individuals and individual communities have created and recreated oral traditions over the generations built on the musical and material resources available to them. In essence 'While Shepherds Watched' is the people's choice, not for its singularity but its plurality, its utility, its adaptability, and the understated universality of its appeal.
By way of a postscript here is a further example of the carol from the diaspora of the South Pennines, as it is sung in the community of Glen Rock, York County, Pennsylvania, USA, whose forebears emigrated in the 1840s from the Cheshire-Derbyshire border to start a new life (Glatfelter 2007). To exploit the natural resources of water-power and local agricultural abundance of sheep production, they built a woollen mill. The tune for 'While Shepherds Watched' that they took with them is sung in oral tradition in Derbyshire, in Foolow and Castleton, where it is known as 'Once More' (see