Submitted: 2026-03-12

Accepted: 2026-04-27

Published: 2026-06-04

Issue 3 (2026), pp. 25 – 40

From Dokimeion to Aphrodisias: A Reassessment of

Marble Provenance and Workshop Relations of Roman

Period Sarcophagi from Perge (Pamphylia) / Asia Minor

by Murat Dirican, Vasiliki Anevlavi, Walter Prochaska, Taner

Korkut

DOI http://doi.org/10.36950/PR.2026.1.2

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Contact

Murat Dirican, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands, m.dirican@arch.leidenuniv.nl

Vasiliki Anevlavi, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens Greece/Austrian Archaeological

Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Austria, Vasiliki.Anevlavi@oeaw.ac.at

Walter Prochaska, Austrian Archaeological Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

walter.prochaska@oeaw.ac.at

Taner Korkut, Akdeniz University, Antalya Türkiye, tkorkut@akdeniz.edu.tr

https://bop.unibe.ch/PR / ISSN 3042-4445

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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From Dokimeion to Aphrodisias: A Re-

assessment of Marble Provenance and

Workshop Relations of Roman Period

Sarcophagi from Perge (Pamphylia) /

Asia Minor.

Abstract: This article presents a comprehensive re-evaluation of the marble provenance

of Roman-period sarcophagi from Perge (Pamphylia), integrating the typological and

archaeometric framework established by Korkut and Dirican (Korkut, Dirican 2020) with

newly acquired multi-proxy analytical data generated at the Austrian Archaeological

Institute (OeAW). While the earlier study questioned the long-standing attribution of

Pamphylian sarcophagi to Dokimeion, limitations inherent in isotope-based discrimination

and restricted reference datasets prevented a definitive reassignment of marble sources.

The present study employs an expanded analytical strategy combining stable carbon and

oxygen isotope analysis, high-precision ICP-MS trace element measurements, and

multivariate statistical modelling based on a global database of over 5,700 geological

marble samples. The results demonstrate a strong and statistically robust association of

the Perge sarcophagus marbles with the Aphrodisias quarry district, while Prokonnesos

emerges as a secondary source for a limited subset of samples. Dokimeion and Ephesian

marble sources can be confidently excluded. Beyond provenance determination, these

findings necessitate a fundamental reconsideration of workshop organisation, artisan

mobility, and material procurement strategies in Roman Pamphylia. In particular, the

dominance of Aphrodisias marble suggests sustained inter-regional connections between

Caria and Pamphylia, challenging traditional models centred on Phrygian production and

reinforcing the role of Aphrodisias as a major sculptural hub with far-reaching economic

and artistic influence.

Keywords: Marble, sarcophagi, provenance, Perge-Pamphylia, Dokimeion, Aphrodisias,

Asia Minor

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Introduction

The terminology "Dokimeion Sarcophagi" is widely used in the literature for marble

sarcophagi dating back to the Roman Period, unearthed in the Pamphylia Region¹. Since

the marble of these sarcophagi, which have specially prepared sarcophagi with certain

decorative templates that repeat continuously, including garlands and friezes, is accepted

to be of origin from the Dokimeion in Phrygia², the terminology "Dokimeion" has been

adopted and used by many researchers to this day (Fig. 1). In this direction, it has been

argued that the marble sarcophagi unearthed in the Pamphylia Region were either

produced in Dokimeion and transported to the region or were produced on-site by traveling

master’s from Dokimeion in Pamphylia cities using Dokimeion marble³. Under the

influence of this approach, it is seen that the term "Dokimeion Sarcophagi" is also used for

marble sarcophagi containing similar decorative templates found in other regions⁴.

Fig. 1. Location map of Aphrodisias, Dokimeion, and Perge in Roman Anatolia (This map derived from WorldGeoDemo ©

Dirican M.).

In parallel with this general acceptance, the thesis that Dokimeion was the third-

largest sarcophagus production centre of the Roman Imperial Period, alongside Rome and

Athens, was advanced⁵. However, this view is a theoretical assumption based entirely on

typological and chronological evaluations, and it is debatable to what extent it reflects

reality. To date, the existence of a sarcophagus production centre using similar templates

in the Dokimeion has not been archaeologically determined. On the other hand, it is known

that similar decorative templates were imitated using local marbles across different regions

¹Waelkens 1982; Waelkens 2019; Waelkens et al. 2019.

2

Waelkens et al. 2019; The concept of Dokimeion marble – Dokimites/Dokimaion – was first used by Strab.

12.8.14.

³Waelkens 1982, 100-123.

⁴Strocka 2017.

⁵Koch, Sichtermann 1982, 33-34.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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during the Roman Period, and sarcophagi were produced accordingly⁶. This situation must

be related to a fashion sense specific to the Roman Period or the Romanisation process.

The limited supply of marble in the Pamphylia Region is not a sufficient argument to justify

the use of the terminology "Dokimeion Sarcophagi" alone. As a matter of fact, research

carried out in the Pamphylia Region reveals that marble was sourced from many regions

and widely used in both monumental architecture and plastic art⁷.

Studies to determine the source of the marble used in the sarcophagi of the

Pamphylia Region are among the subjects that have long been neglected in

archaeological research. However, evaluations carried out in recent years have shown that

there is a local workshop tradition in the region and that certain decorative templates are

produced within the framework of this tradition⁸. This situation necessitated examining the

marbles used in the sarcophagi through scientific analysis. In this context, in 2020, marble

samples were taken from five sarcophagi with different decorative templates in the ancient

city of Perge, which is known to be an important sarcophagus production centre, and

analysing were carried out⁹. Chemical and isotope analyses have made it clear that the

marble used in these sarcophagi is not related to Dokimeion or other nearby marble

quarries in Phrygia. Although some important findings have been made regarding possible

connections with other regions, no precise marble sources that can be directly linked have

been identified.

However, the results of this analysis clearly brought to the agenda for the first time

the necessity of questioning the "Dokimeion" terminology used for the sarcophagi of the

Pamphylia Region. On the other hand, the fact that the quarries to which the marbles used

in the production of Pamphylian sarcophagi belong could not be determined with certainty

has left the relevant research incomplete. For this reason, a new project was developed;

Within the scope of the project, existing samples were re-examined in a laboratory

environment with more advanced methods and richer databases, and additional analyses

were carried out. In this article, the results of these analyses will be introduced in detail.

Archaeological and Historiographical Background

Marble sarcophagi from the Pamphylia Region¹⁰are divided into two groups based

on their decorative templates. The examples evaluated in the first group are decorated

with figured frieze expressions. Two long faces and one narrow façade of this

sarcophagus group are filled with figurative expressions (Figures 2a, 2b and 2c). There is

a door motif on the second narrow façade, whose orientation varies with the front and back

applications (Figure 2c). In front of or next to the door motifs, the presentation scene

depicts male and female figures, usually in front of an altar. The figurative frieze

sarcophagi from the Pamphylia Region are also divided into subgroups based on their

different decorative templates. The most common examples in the first subgroup are the

colonnaded sarcophagi. The surface of the sarcophagi in this group is animated with

columns placed at regular intervals. Different expressions are included between the

columns. Some of these accounts are related to the tomb owners (Fig. 2a). Scenes of

mutual dialogue or education are the most preferred narrative template among narratives

related to the grave owners.

There are also sarcophagi that are the subject of mythological narratives. The scenes

in which the Twelve Labours of Heracles are described are the most common group

⁶Koch, Sichtermann 1982, 476-557.

⁷Dirican et al. 2025.

⁸Işık 2007; Korkut 2016; Korkut 2019.

9

Mansel 1949; Mansel 1963, 1978; Abbasoğlu 2001; Özdizbay 2002; Turak 2011, 2012, 2018; Korkut,

Dirican 2020.

¹⁰For general information on marble sarcophagi in the Pamphylia region, see Korkut 2019, Korkut 2022.

28

Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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among mythological subjects (Fig. 2b). Another defining feature of the columned

sarcophagi, in which mythological narratives are preferred, is that the lower part of the

sarcophagus is emphasised by an ornamented belt, bounded by a flat moulding at the top.

In sarcophagi, where narratives about the tomb owners are preferred, this deletion

arrangement is not encountered. In these sarcophagi, the figures are depicted on the

pedestal at the base. This difference in décor templates is also evident in the arrangement

of the columned sarcophagi on the cover.

In sarcophagi with narrations about the tomb owners, kline lids were generally

preferred. On the clines, the depictions of husband and wife symbolising the grave owners

are engraved in an extendable manner. In sarcophagi depicting mythological narratives,

pedimented lids in the form of barrel vaults were used, as in the sarcophagus cluster with

garlands. In the second subgroup of figured-frieze sarcophagi, there is a cluster of

sarcophagi called the "Torre-Nova" type in the literature. In Torre-Nova-type sarcophagi,

the frieze expressions are uninterrupted and are limited to carriers such as columns or

pillars only at the corners (Fig. 2c). Another common feature of these sarcophagi is that

the frieze belts consist of mythological narratives. The scenes in which Heracles' 12 works

are given are the most popular narratives among mythological subjects. The frieze in

which the childhood story of Heracles and Iphicles is told is represented by a singular

example. In addition, quotations from the Trojan wars were also used in the décor

templates. Among the Trojan War friezes, the Menelaos-Paris-Aphrodite scene is the most

preferred subject. The lids of Torre-Nova type sarcophagi are generally arranged in the

form of barrel vaults. It is also known that kline lids are used in some examples, albeit few

in number. The dimensions of the sarcophagi with kline lids are smaller than the others. As

in the set of sarcophagi with garlands, it is possible that these examples were used as

ostotheks. The depiction of adults on kline covers must have been considered in this

direction.

a

c

b

Fig. 2. The first group of local sarcophagi of the Pamphylia region are decorated with figured frieze expressions (©

Korkut T.)

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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The characteristic feature of the second group of sarcophagi from the Pamphylia

Region is their decoration with garland motifs (Fig. 3). The garlands, which are processed

three on the long sides and one on the narrow faces, are either made of leaves alone or of

a leaf-fruit mixture. Garland carriers are Nike figures in the corners, and Eros figures in the

middle. The empty spaces above the garlands were often filled with Medusa heads and

theatre masks. In some special cases, figurative expressions are also included. The tops

of the sarcophagi of the Pamphylia Region are cut straight.

On the other hand, the lower parts of the sarcophagi are enlivened by rich frieze belts

featuring geometric and ornamental motifs. The lids of the sarcophagi with garlands are

arranged in the form of a barrel vault roof. In addition, a triangular pediment is included on

the narrow facades. The pediment is emphasised with different motifs. Antefixes are

formed on the long faces of the caps. The outer surfaces of the antefixes are emphasised

with mask or palmette motifs. The tops and corners of the lids are also animated with

palmette-shaped acroteria. The sarcophagus sizes of garland sarcophagi are generally

arranged for adults. However, it is known that some sarcophagi are kept smaller. The

number of garlands on the long faces of these specimens was also reduced from three to

two. It is thought that such small sarcophagi were used as children's sarcophagi or

ostotheks.

Fig. 3. The second group of sarcophagi of the Pamphylia Region is that they are decorated with garland motifs (©

Korkut T.).

The funerary landscapes of Pamphylia, particularly those of Perge and Side, are

characterised by an exceptional concentration of marble sarcophagi dating from the first to

the third centuries CE. Since the late nineteenth century, these monuments have played a

central role in discussions of regional identity, artistic production, and economic

connectivity in southern Asia Minor¹¹.

Early scholarship interpreted Pamphylian sarcophagi primarily through stylistic

comparison with Phrygian material. This approach was strongly influenced by the

discovery and systematic exploitation of the Dokimeion marble quarries, which were

¹¹Lanckoronski 1892; Mansel 1949; Mansel 1963, 1978; İnan 1979; Abbasoğlu 2001; Özdizbay 2002; Turak

2011, 2012, 2018.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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recognised as one of the principal imperial quarry districts of the Roman Empire¹². The

assumption that Pamphylia lacked significant local marble resources further reinforced the

attribution of its sarcophagi to Dokimeion.

The concept of a Dokimeion-centred production model was formalised in the late

twentieth century by Koch and Sichtermann¹³, who identified Dokimeion as one of three

principal centres of Roman sarcophagus production alongside Rome and Athens.

Waelkens¹⁴further elaborated this model, grouping a wide range of Anatolian sarcophagi

under the label 'Dokimeion sarcophagi' on the basis of typological and stylistic criteria.

Subsequent typological research, however, began to expose the limitations of this

approach. Detailed analyses revealed significant regional variation in decorative programs,

carving techniques, and compositional principles, suggesting the existence of multiple

production centres operating within a shared visual koine rather than a single dominant

workshop tradition¹⁵.

At the same time, the increasing application of archaeometric methods fundamentally

altered the evidential basis of provenance studies. Stable isotope analyses demonstrated

that many Anatolian marble sources exhibit overlapping isotopic signatures, rendering

simple attribution problematic¹⁶. This realisation prompted calls for multi-proxy approaches

combining isotopic, petrographic, and trace-element data.

Within this evolving historiographical landscape, Aphrodisias emerged as one of the

most intensively studied sculptural centres of the Roman East. Archaeological, epigraphic,

and archaeometric research documented a highly organised quarrying and workshop

system capable of producing and exporting large quantities of marble sculpture¹⁷. While

Aphrodisias has traditionally been associated primarily with statuary and architectural

sculpture, its potential role in the production and distribution of sarcophagi has increasingly

been recognised.

The first systematic archaeometric investigation of Pamphylian sarcophagi was

conducted by Korkut and Dirican¹⁸. Combining stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis

with chemical data, the study demonstrated that the marble used for the Perge sarcophagi

could not be securely attributed to Dokimeion.

While this conclusion represented a significant departure from traditional models, the

authors emphasised the limitations imposed by isotopic overlap and the restricted scope of

available reference datasets. The study, therefore, remained cautious in proposing

alternative source attributions and explicitly called for further analyses based on expanded

databases and multi-proxy methodologies.

Materials and Methods

Sampling: Within the scope of this research, samples were taken from sarcophagi

belonging to two different typological groups. The first of these is the columnar sarcophagi,

and in this study, two samples belonging to this group were examined (P1a and P1b). The

samples in the second group are sarcophagi with whirlpools. Samples from this group are

common in the ancient city of Perge (P2, P3, and P4) (Fig. 4).

As a result of petrographic analysis, the rock type of the samples has been confirmed

as marble with varying grain sizes. Accordingly, the P4 sample has a medium grain size

(1.5 to 3 mm), and the others have a fine grain size (<1.5 mm). The grain-size specification

¹²Humann, Puchstein 1890.

¹³Koch, Sichtermann 1982.

¹⁴Waelkens 1982.

¹⁵Korkut 2019.

¹⁶Attanasio et al. 2006.

¹⁷Roueché 2007; Russell 2013.

¹⁸Korkut, Dirican 2020.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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after Prochaska and Attanasio 2022¹⁹(Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Fragments of marble sarcophagi subjected to archaeometric analysis from Perge (© Korkut T.).

¹⁹Prochaska, Attanasio 2022.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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MD63_P1A

MD64_P1B

MD65_P2

MD66_P3

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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MD67_P4

Fig. 5. Thin sections of the samples (scale 1 mm). The artefacts are carved from fine- to medium-grained white calcitic

marble. The first three samples (MD63_P1A, MD64_P1B, MD65_P2, MD66_P3) show very similar petrographic

properties. If we define these samples: Fine-grained (MGS <2mm), heteroblastic granoblastic calcitic marble with an

interlocking mosaic texture. The calcite crystals are predominantly anhedral to subhedral in shape and display curved to

embayed grain boundaries. Under crossed polars, the sample exhibits well-developed polysynthetic twinning,

intracrystalline strain features, and evidence of dynamic recrystallisation. The rock is characterised by a highly

recrystallised metamorphic carbonate fabric that has been affected by deformation-related tectono-metamorphic

processes. The fourth sample (MD67_P4) is different from the others: Medium-grained (MGS 2mm-5mm), heteroblastic

granoblastic calcitic marble characterised by an interlocking mosaic texture. The rock consists predominantly of

anhedral to subhedral calcite crystals displaying well-developed polysynthetic twinning under crossed polarised light.

Grain boundaries are mostly curved to locally embayed, with limited polygonal equilibrium textures. Several large calcite

porphyroblasts are surrounded by finer recrystallised carbonate grains, producing a distinctly inequigranular fabric.

Intracrystalline deformation features, including bent twin lamellae and strain-related extinction patterns, are locally

developed and indicate deformation-assisted dynamic recrystallisation. Accessory mineral content is extremely low, and

the marble exhibits a highly recrystallised tectono-metamorphic carbonate fabric. These definitions were based on

Antonelli & Lazzarini 2015 (©Dirican M.).

These samples correspond exactly to those examined in the 2020 study and were re-

analysed using refined analytical protocols.

The analysis of the stable isotopes of O and C is a standard method in marble

provenance analysis, and several laboratories offer this service. The method is relatively

robust but must be applied cautiously when sampling weathered or contaminated

surfaces. Stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios were measured on carefully prepared,

fresh fracture surfaces to minimise the effects of weathering and surface contamination²⁰.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analyses were performed at the Bayerische

Staatssammlung für Paläontologie (Munich, Germany). Carbon dioxide was extracted from

carbonates using phosphoric acid at 72 °C with a Finnigan Gasbench II automated device

coupled to a Finnigan DeltaPlusXP mass spectrometer operated in continuous He flow

mode. NBS-19 served as the reference material and AK-5 as the running standard.

In this study, many trace elements were determined by ICP-MS after dissolution of

the carbonate phase using only hot HNO₃. As many significant trace elements in the

marbles (e.g., Mn, Mg, Fe, Sr, Y, V, Cd, Ba, La, Ce, Yb, and U) occur only in the sub-ppm

range, extreme diligence has to be exercised in the sample preparation and the execution

of the analyses in general. Under no circumstances should these trace element data be

compared or mixed up with data obtained by bulk analytical methods (e.g., HF dissolution,

XRF analysis, etc.), in accordance with protocols outlined by Prochaska and Attanasio²¹.

Trace element analyses were conducted by ICP-MS at the Technical University of Vienna

using a Thermo Fisher Scientific iCAP Qc ICP-MS system equipped with a concentric

nebuliser and quartz cyclonic spray chamber.

²⁰Attanasio et al. 2006.

²¹Prochaska, Attanasio 2021, 2022.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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Data evaluation employed multivariate discriminant analysis using STATISTICA 13.5

and SPSS 28. Detection limits and analytical reproducibility followed the laboratory

standards and protocols established in previous archaeometric marble provenance

studies²².

The archaeological sample was compared with an extensive database containing

5,700 geological samples collected from marble quarries and outcrops across the ancient

world. This comprehensive database included notable locations such as Aphrodisias,

Carrara, Prokonnesos, Dokimeion, Penteli, Paros, Thasos, Heraklea/Miletos, Ephesos,

Göktepe and various other sites²³. Additionally, quarries located near each relevant group

were also considered²⁴. The resulting diagrams illustrate the final selection of quarries that

matched the examined archaeological specimens in terms of grain size, colour, and the

closest chemical and petrographic similarities.

Results

Stable isotope ratios alone display extensive overlap with several Anatolian and

Aegean marble sources, confirming the limitations of single-proxy approaches observed in

earlier studies²⁵.

The study utilised stable isotope analysis and ICP-MS to generate numerical data for

the sampled objects, offering comprehensive insights into their composition and

characteristics. These advanced analytical techniques enabled a detailed investigation of

the samples' isotopic signals and elemental composition, significantly enhancing the

precision and depth of the findings.

Table 1: The archaeometric data of the sampled artefacts (© Dirican M., Anevlavi V.).

The results are presented alongside the laboratory and sample numbers, including

stable isotopic values of carbon and oxygen, as well as chemical data from ICP-MS

analysis. The chemical data encompass concentrations of magnesium (in per cent),

manganese, iron, strontium, chromium, vanadium, yttrium, cadmium, boron, lanthanum,

cerium, ytterbium, and uranium (in ppm) (Table 1)²⁶.

The results confirmed Aphrodisias and Prokonnesos as the marble sources through

discriminant analysis. The following variables were used for the multivariate diagram and

numerical statistical approach (STATISTICA and SPSS): δ¹⁸O‰, δ¹³C‰, Mn, Fe, Sr, La,

Ce, U, Yb, V, Cd, Y and Ba (Table 2) (Figures 6 and 7).

As the analysed artefacts consist exclusively of calcitic marble, dolomitic sources

(most notably Thasos Vathi and Sivec) were ruled out at an early stage of the

investigation. The identification of suitable quarry candidates relied on an integrated

assessment of macroscopic features, including grain size, together with geochemical

²²Prochaska 2021; Prochaska, Attanasio 2021; 2022; Prochaska, Ladstätter, Anevlavi 2024.

²³Attanasio et al.2006; Prochaska 2021; Prochaska, Attanasio 2021; 2022; Prochaska, Ladstätter, Anevlavi

2024.

²⁴Anevlavi et al. 2025.

²⁵Korkut, Dirican 2020.

26

The analytical uncertainty of the ICP-MS measurements is estimated to be within ±5% for major trace

elements, based on repeated measurements of reference materials and laboratory standards.

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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criteria. Particular weight was given to trace element distributions, with special attention to

yttrium (Y) concentrations within the broader Rare Earth Element (REE) suite. The

quarries illustrated in the diagrams correspond to the final group of candidate sources, all

of which display comparatively elevated yttrium values compatible with the geochemical

signature of the artefacts. Although Dokimeion exhibits certain overlapping characteristics,

the systematically high yttrium concentrations measured in the samples are inconsistent

with this source and therefore exclude it from further consideration. Ephesian quarry

districts were likewise evaluated; however, clear discrepancies in both isotopic data and

trace element patterns preclude any meaningful correlation with the artefact assemblage.

The stable isotope diagram (δ¹³C vs. δ¹⁸O) illustrates the isotopic relationship

between the analysed artefacts and a range of reference quarry datasets. Although

several artefact samples plot within or near the isotopic fields of known marble sources,

substantial overlap is evident among quarry groups, particularly those from Prokonnesos,

Aphrodisias, and Heraklea/Miletos. This overlap significantly limits the discriminatory

power of isotopic data alone, as similar isotopic signatures may correspond to distinct

geological sources (Fig. 6).

The multivariate diagram, based on the combined use of stable isotope ratios and

trace element concentrations, demonstrates improved separation between the artefact

samples and several reference quarry groups compared with the isotope-only plot (Fig. 6).

The inclusion of multiple variables enhances the overall discriminatory power and allows

for a more refined assessment of potential provenance. Nevertheless, despite this

improvement, the two-dimensional projection of the multivariate space still yields partial

overlap among certain quarry fields, reflecting the inherent limitations of visual

interpretation in reduced dimensions. Consequently, although the diagram provides

valuable qualitative insight into the relationships between samples and reference datasets,

it cannot, by itself, provide an unequivocal attribution. For this reason, the numerical

probability values presented in Table 2 are essential, as they quantify sample–source

affinities across the full multivariate space and provide a clearer, more robust basis for

provenance determination.

Fig. 6. Stable isotope diagram (δ¹³C vs. δ¹⁸O, PDB) comparing artefact samples with reference datasets

from selected marble quarries. The quarry groups are illustrated using 90% probability ellipses (©

Anevlavi V.).

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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Fig. 7. Multivariate diagram showing the distribution of artefact samples and reference marble quarries

based on δ¹⁸O‰, δ¹³C‰, Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, La, Ce, Yb, U, Y, Cd, and Ba. The quarry groups are illustrated

using 90% probability ellipses (© Anevlavi V.).

Artefacts

Distance

Abs.

Rel.

Provenance

Rel.

Provenance

probab.

2. choice

8.5

1. choice

1.1

P1-a

P1-b

P2

MD

63

MD

64

MD

65

MD

66

MD

67

94.6

94.9

88.2

91.8

19.3

83.2

83.1

91.6

88.6

97.2

Aphrodisias

Prokonnesos

1.1

1.7

1.4

7.3

8.1

6.6

8.2

1.4

Heraklea/Miletos

P3

P4

Table 2: The calculated statistical parameters of the samples investigated. The variables δ¹⁸O‰, δ¹³C‰, Mg,

Dirican M.).

The explanation of these tables is given below:

• Distance: Distance of the sample under consideration from the centre of the ellipse. This centre is the

average value of the quarry probability field.

• Relative (posterior) probability: Probability is the degree of likelihood of a sample belonging to a given

group (within the selected number of groups). Results below 60 % indicate that the sample probably cannot

be assigned with certainty, and a second choice has to be considered.

• Absolute (typical) probability: This is the measure of the probability that a sample belongs to a given

population. Samples in the centre of the probability ellipse have a high absolute probability. The threshold is

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Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

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10 %, corresponding to samples on the edge of the 90 % probability ellipse. Low values indicate anomalous

samples (outliers) or samples possibly not belonging to any group in the selection.

However, when combined with trace element concentrations and multivariate

statistical modelling, a clear and statistically robust pattern emerges. All Perge samples

exhibit the highest relative and absolute probabilities for the Aphrodisias quarry district.

Prokonnesos appears as a secondary source for a limited subset of samples, while

Dokimeion and Ephesian marbles can be excluded with high confidence due to

incompatible trace element signatures, particularly with regard to yttrium and rare earth

element distributions²⁷.

Discussion: Production Strategies and Inter-Regional Workshop Networks

The identification of Aphrodisias as the dominant marble source for the Perge

sarcophagi has far-reaching implications for our understanding of production strategies

and workshop organisation in Roman Pamphylia. Rather than viewing the region as a

passive recipient of Phrygian products, the evidence points to sustained and structured

connections with Caria and the Aphrodisian sculptural milieu.

The predominance of Aphrodisias marble in the sarcophagi of the Pamphylia Region

raises several possibilities regarding the production and distribution processes of these

artefacts. In this context, it can be evaluated that the sarcophagi were either completed in

Aphrodisias and exported to Pamphylia or sent as semi-processed sarcophagi and

completed in Pamphylia by Aphrodisian masters. However, the fact that the sarcophagi of

the two regions show significant differences in decorative templates and compositional

understanding suggests that these scenarios are unlikely to have occurred through a

direct, widespread transfer of production. In addition, no examples of semi-processed

sarcophagi of Carian origin or belonging to Aphrodisias workshops have been found in

Pamphylia so far. On the other hand, no traces of semi-processing were found on the

completed sarcophagi of Pamphylia, which may indicate the production of Caria or

Aphrodisias. All these data show that the sarcophagus production process cannot be

explained by a simple centre-periphery relationship; rather, it should be evaluated within

the framework of a multi-actor, flexible, and multi-layered organisational model.

The earliest examples of Aphrodisias sarcophagi began to be produced in the Early

Roman Period under the influence of Ephesus and the Ionia Region in general²⁸, from the

2nd century AD, the workshops of Aphrodisias developed their own typological and

compositional templates, and within this unique repertoire, production continued

uninterrupted until the second half of the 3rd century AD. Sarcophagus production in the

Pamphylia Region dates back to the Hellenistic Period, with local limestone as the primary

material in this early phase. With the spread of marble sarcophagi throughout the Roman

Empire, the use of marble increased in Pamphylia. However, due to the limited quality of

local marble quarries, marble was imported from abroad for sarcophagus production as

well as for sculpture. As the results of this research show, Aphrodisias marble has been

the most preferred material. The widespread appreciation of the decorative templates

developed by Pamphylian masters shows that this repertoire was carried beyond the

region. As a matter of fact, it has been determined that the mobile masters go to Konya,

Denizli and Manisa in line with special orders and produce in line with their own typological

schemes²⁹. It is noteworthy that this type of production activity also took place in

Aphrodisias. The garland arrangement of a sarcophagus found at Aphrodisias reflects

features of the Pamphylia region as a whole rather than the local Aphrodisias scheme. The

²⁷Anevlavi et al. 2025.

²⁸Işık 2007.

²⁹Korkut 2019, 642-644.

38

Dirican et al.| Sarcophagi from Perge

Provinciae Romanae 3 (2026)

fact that the marble of the work in question is of Aphrodisias origin indicates that this

sarcophagus may have been produced on site by a travelling Pamphylian master³⁰.

Extensive re-evaluations of the Roman marble economy in recent years largely

coincide with the findings on sarcophagus production and trade. These studies reveal that

production is organised within the framework of flexible and multi-layered systems rather

than a single-centred and hierarchical model, artisan mobility is a common practice, and

multiple supply routes operate simultaneously within regional networks³¹. In this context,

the processes of extraction, processing and transformation of marble into final products

can be shared among different geographical centres, and the circulation of raw materials

and the transfer of technical knowledge exhibit an integrated structure within the same

economic network. Therefore, sarcophagus production should be considered not only as

the output of certain workshops but also as part of a dynamic, inter-interacting economic

system operating on a Mediterranean scale.

Conclusion

This expanded study transforms earlier regional observations into a robust

international synthesis on the marble provenance and production networks of Roman

sarcophagi from Perge.

By integrating new multi-proxy analytical data with a critical reassessment of previous

research, this study demonstrates that Aphrodisias, not Dokimeion, was the primary

marble source for the Perge assemblage.

The results underscore the necessity of combining archaeometric, typological, and

historiographical approaches and provide a framework for future comparative studies of

Pamphylian and Pisidian sarcophagi within the wider context of Roman marble economies.

Acknowledgments

Our studies were partly supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research

and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No:

1402039002 HE.MSCA.PF.TAS.

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